Chinoiserie: Ceramics of Cathay
‘Chinoiserie’ is a major and recurring theme in European artistic styles that reflect Chinese and other Asian influences or inspirations, beginning from the early 18th-century and continuing to present day. The term was coined from the French word ‘Chinois’ – which means Chinese. The widespread popularity of ‘Chinoiserie’ has seen it encompass a wide array of artistic mediums such as clothing, paintings, ceramics and lacquerware to even furniture and architecture.
The Myth of Cathay
The 18th-century saw a rise in interest in goods imported from China, but with restricted interaction or exploration of the actual country, Europeans began to draw inspiration from the imaginary and mythical version of the East in their minds, which they named ‘Cathay’. The word ‘Cathay’ is the Anglicized version of the words ‘Kitay’ or ‘Cathai’ , which were variants of ‘Khitan’, the name of a nomadic tribe which ruled most of Northern China from the 10th to 12th-century. The name ‘Cathai‘ obtained widespread prominence after the publication of a book by Marco Polo, and subsequently made its’ way throughout Europe. In present day, China is still referred to as ‘Kitai’ in Russia.
This sudden boom in trade relations with China spurred the general public, craftsmen and artists to create designs that mimicked Asian designs, as well as patterns and motifs of what they imagined the magical, oriental land of ‘Cathay’ to be like. Unfortunately, most of Chinoiserie or depictions of Cathay were far from the reality of China at the time. Although China allowed for Western and European traders to conduct trade, the Chinese Emperor did not fully trust these foreigners and feared invasion. He thus forced the foreign traders to remain isolated in the single port of Canton, now known as Guang Zhou. The port of Canton contained many offices, or ‘Hongs’, where the traders would spend majority of their time while imagining what the rest of China was like.
In the early 18th-century the British failed to profit ostensibly from trade with the Chinese due to lack of interest in their goods, which lead to them using Opium as a trade commodity instead. This resulted in the Opium War between the East and the West in the late 18th to 19th-century, with the drug causing massive social, economic and political problems within China. This further increased the gap in reality between the poor, drug-infested land of China, and the beautiful, mystical land of Cathay perceived halfway across the world. The illusion of Cathay and its’ discrepancies with reality shows us that Chinoiserie, harmless as it seemed at the time, can now be seen as a political statement, and very deliberate propaganda in which the West profited from the exoticism of the East.
Characteristics of Chinoiserie
Elements of ‘Chinoiserie’ often incorporated the Chinese concept of ‘shan shui’, or fantastic landscapes. In 18th-century Britain, China, or Cathay, appeared to the Europeans as a mysterious, distant land, and thus the depictions they created were often inspired by their daydreams and fantasies. These landscapes often included a few, if not all, of the following: rolling mountains, flowing rivers, extravagant pagodas, wooden bridges, fabulous flora and fauna, exotic birds and animals and perhaps most importantly, willow trees. Also included in these landscapes were mythical beasts such as dragons, which were seen as part of the strange allure of the East. All of these served as common motifs of Chinoiserie.
Besides the presence of epic landscapes, Chinese people were often featured as big elements of Chinoiserie. These figures are distinguished by their Eastern clothing and Asian-looking features, and are oftentimes depicted fishing on fishing boats, resting below trees or engaging in leisurely pursuits such as smoking pipes or playing games. These figures are occasionally copied from actual Chinese objects or books, but mostly they were conjured out of the artist’s imagination.
Porcelain
A large contribution to the popularity of Chinoiserie in the 18th-century was the success of Western and European designer’s attempts to imitate the technical aspects of Chinese ceramics, and create porcelain. Porcelain had originated in China in the 7th-century and was only manufactured at imperial kilns in Jing De Zhen, remaining a closely guarded national secret until the years of 1712 to 1722 when Jesuit Francois Xavier d’Entrecolles brought back details of Chinese porcelain manufacture to Europe.
Porcelain was prized for its’ hardness, durability and translucency as compared to other ceramics. The name ‘porcelain’ was derived from the Italian word ‘porcellana’ (cowrie shell), due to the translucent nature of the ceramic resembling that of the surface of the shell. Artists commonly used Persian cobalt to decorate the porcelain, giving it the distinctive blue and white colour scheme it is now famous for. At the time, cobalt blue was a precious commodity and had a value almost twice that of gold. However, coloured porcelain was also popular at the time.
In this exhibition, we will be bringing you on a journey through 18th-century England, Germany and China, displaying distinctive pieces of ceramic tableware that would have adorned dining tables of the past.
Hong Bowl
ca. 1785, China
Porcelain
This large porcelain bowl is decorated with a scene of the bustling waterfront of Guangzhou (Canton), the busiest trading port in China in the 18th-century. Although porcelain and other goods such as silk and lacquerware were in great demand by the Western and European world in the 18th-century, foreign trading in China was strictly controlled. Western and European trading companies were restricted to the trading port in Canton, and its’ ‘Hongs‘, or offices and residences. This is where the Hong bowl derives its’ name. Hong bowls such as these were produced by Chinese artists as souvenirs for wealthy foreign merchants.
As souvenirs, these Hong bowls tend to depict the Hongs in a favourable light for merchants to bring back home, thus contributing to the ‘Cathay’ image that was being driven by the porcelain and Chinoiserie trade. In fact, the real China was left unexplored by the West in that period of time. It is debatable about whether the Hongs were truly a pleasant place compared to the rest of China at the time or whether, as the only place foreigners were allowed to stay and work, it had ended up being romanticized as well.
The bowl does not contain common elements of Chinoiserie such as fantastical landscapes or mythical creatures, however it was created with the idea of foreign interest in mind, and provides a glimpse into life in the mysterious East. As souvenirs for traders, these Hong bowls would certainly have travelled far and wide to find their places on Western and European dinner tables amongst their other porcelain counterparts.
The blue and white scheme in porcelain was increasingly popular at the time, however this Hong bowl is vividly coloured with a variety of bright colours in order to portray the liveliness of the port and capture the place in almost lifelike detail. Painstaking effort is taken in its’ meticulous depiction of the decorated buildings, boats and trees of the port. On the bowl we are even given a glimpse inside the buildings, to see the decor inside the buildings, with the presence of tiny Chinese figures in traditional Chinese garb.
It is interesting to note that the Chinese artisans chose to paint the water and trees in a fantastical purple colour although blue was readily available and was used for buildings instead. This may have been done in an effort to promote the idea of a magical ‘Cathay’, or a creative liberty taken on by the craftsmen at the time.
Tureen and Cover
ca. 1753 – 1755, Paris, France
Porcelain, made by Royal Worcester
This tureen, measuring 45.1cm in length and 34.9cm in width, is considered a large piece of porcelain in the mid-1750s, and would probably have been an ambitious piece to make and fire successfully in England back then. The backstamp indicates that it is made by Royal Worcester circa 1753. Established as a commercially successful undertaking in 1751, following the takeover of Benjamin Lund’s Bristol works, the Worcester factory was originally known as the ‘Worcester Tonquin Manufacture’, a name that referred to the English East India Company’s trading post held at Tonkin in Vietnam between 1672 and 1697. Royal Worcester is believed to be the oldest or second oldest remaining English porcelain brand still in existence today.
The tureen and the cover of porcelain are painted with underglaze blue, with Chinese flowers framing scenes of Chinese men and women in landscape settings. The people are shown as enjoying leisurely pursuits, and in this respect they are entirely characteristic of a great deal of European chinoiserie decoration, which presented China as an exotic, otherworldly land with pavilions, panelled interiors and gardens inhabited by elegant connoisseurs of leisurely pursuits. Ceramic decoration of this type gave Europeans their impression of life in China during the eighteenth century.
The tureen features a dome-shaped cover with a triple twig handle. The shape of the tureen, oval with a scrolled handle at each end, is thought to be extremely rare. There are at least four of these tureens and covers each decorated with what seem to be different, although related, groups of designs.’ This example is the only one known with a twig finial to the cover rather than a dolphin found on the other three. One is in the Dyson Perrins Museum, Worcester, and another was in the Rous Lench Collection.
The tureen would have been used for soup, which was served at the start of large multi-course meals in prosperous English households. What is interesting about this particular piece is that it combines the everyday routine of the English, with the decor of Chinoiserie. In that way it is a clear mash-up of East and West and perfectly embodies how trade relations had begun to allow for cultural pollination.
Teapot
ca. 1723-1724, Meissen, Germany
Porcelain, made by Elias Adam
This teapot, credited to a silversmith named Elias Adam and manufactured by the Meissen porcelain factory, is made of hard-paste porcelain, which has an advantage over soft-paste porcelain because of its ability to withstand greater heat; thus hard-paste porcelain is less likely to crack when exposed to hot liquids. Although it should be noted that hard-paste porcelain requires a higher firing temperature, therefore possibly restricting the types of decoratives available to use. The porcelain is painted in enamels, of which the colours are derived from the addition of various minerals, most often metal oxides. The technique of gilding is also evident on the body, and the teapot is mounted with silver-gilt.
Its squat shape, loop handle and strongly curved spout spring provides a strong relationship with the chinoiseries painted by Johann Gregor Höroldt. In the image we could see two chinoiserie figures dressed in what looks like Hanfu. It is very interesting to note that the artist paid close attention to the patterns on their Hanfu, the elaborate detailed depiction not only adds depth to the image, it also gives a layer of realism. The two figures appear to be admiring something in the distance, and the appearance of a teapot in the image suggests a leisure, casual atmosphere. The addition of flowers and insects around the teapot gives a sense of nature; perhaps they are enjoying a cup of tea in the gardens.
The Meissen factory relied heavily on Chinese porcelain shapes and decorative motifs because there was simply no precedents in European ceramics. It is natural that European potteries were inspired by Chinese designs. The figures drawn on the teapot are clearly Chinese, from the clothes they wear to the way they style their hair. These two Höroldt chinoiseries are framed with gilt scrolls, lustre panels and feathery foliage in two tones of iron-red. This teapot, measuring 13cm tall, is finished with a domed cover with top-shaped knobs. An interesting thing to note is how the handle and spout are painted with Indian flowers and insects, something we do not see in original Chinese ceramic motifs.
In terms of purpose, the teapot’s place on Western and European dining tables is truly a sign of trade relations and contact with China, as the imports of tea came primarily from the East. The fact that it made its’ way into everyday use indicates the popularity of tea at the time, and how the West and Europe started to absorb these new commodities from the East as part of their social norms. Presently, Britain is famous as the country that loves tea, but it is good to keep in mind that centuries ago the very same tea leaves originated from the East.
Plate
ca. 1779 – 1799, Shropshire, England
Porcelain, made by Caughley Porcelain Factory
This blue glazed plate was produced by Caughley Porcelain Factory. Caughley (or Salopian) porcelain is the earliest known porcelain to be made in Shropshire and was produced under its two proprietors, Thomas Turner and Ambrose Gallimore. From the beginning production concentrated on transfer printed imitation Chinese porcelain table wares imported into Britain at that time, which it is best known for. The company was a major force in the porcelain industry of the late 1700s. The plate is made from soft-paste porcelain, which was used by European potters back then to replicate Chinese porcelain as they do not have the knowledge to produce the same materials as the Chinese. Soft-paste porcelain has a lower firing temperature, therefore allowing for a wider variety of colours for decoration, as well as a reduced fuel consumption in making the porcelain.
Most of the early under-glaze-blue decorated wares from Caughly, from c. 1775-95 are marked with an ‘S’. ‘So’ or ‘Sx’, for ‘Salopian’. Sometimes an impressed mark ‘Salopian’ are found, from the same time.
From c. 1780 there was much French influence on style and design, and gilt began to be used on its own for decoration. Those changes reflect the work of the decorating establishment of Humphrey and Robert Chamberlain at Worcester, and increasingly from the 1780s Caughley porcelain was sent away for decoration.
This plate tries to replicate Chinese porcelain with its authentic pattern, scalloped edge and a border of diaper ornament and its blue tone. The plate has Chinoiserie figures fishing in a lake scene, with trees, houses and a boat. However, it was not totally the same as they undertook the efficient use of transfer-printing in preference to the labour-intensive Chinese method of hand painting. This would allow the factory to mass produce the plates instead of individualistic pieces.
Bibliography & References
http://www.nhb.gov.sg/~/media/nhb/files/whats%20on/i%20love%20museums%20guide/130405_ilm_guide.pdfla=en
http://www.nhb.gov.sg/~/media/nhb/files/resources/publications/muse%20sg/bemuse_v6_issue3.pdf
http://www.museumofroyalworcester.org/collection/tureen-and-cover/
http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O336914/tureen-and-cover-worcester-porcelain-factory/
http://gotheborg.com/glossary/caughley.shtml
http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O279057/plate-caughley-porcelain-factory/
http://global.britannica.com/art/Caughley-ware
http://www.thepotteries.org/types/hardpaste.htm
https://www.royalcollection.org.uk/collection/36035/set-of-tea-bowls
Updated wall text and Hong Bowl label done by Jed, Tureen label done by Malik and Shu Hui (lengthened by Jed), Teapot label done by Shu Hui (lengthened by Jed) and Plate label done by Si Min.
